Developing new drugs to treat human diseases is often based on identifying chemical compounds that exert a beneficial effect on one or more human physiological processes. Those compounds that prevent or reduce disease-associated processes without causing serious toxicity are promising candidates for new drugs. In conventional pharmaceutical development, new or old compounds that might be suitable for use as drugs are first tested in in-vitro assays and/or animal models for both beneficial effects and adverse reactions. The vast majority of compounds tested are discarded at this stage for not being effective or suitable for administration to human subjects (e.g., due to toxicity, instability, or poor pharmacokinetics). Of those few candidates that overcome this first hurdle, only a small fraction are ever approved as drugs for human use because most fail to meet the safety and efficacy requirements required by governmental regulatory bodies. Because of this, it currently costs about $800 million and takes several years time to bring a new drug to market. Accordingly, the value of compounds that show promise of becoming new drugs increases considerably once they are shown to be safe and efficacious in early stage human trials.